Mark Corson

There is also information tual partnership with their patients to reflect on about their underlying pattern in all that they tell their evolving pattern cheap 160mg super p-force oral jelly with visa impotence zargan. The insights gained in this us about their experiences and perceptions buy super p-force oral jelly 160mg on line erectile dysfunction treatments that work, includ- process lead to an awakening and transformation to ing stories about their life cheap 160 mg super p-force oral jelly with visa erectile dysfunction injections cost, recounted dreams, and a higher level of consciousness (Endo, 1998; Endo, portrayed meanings. Reflecting on the meaning of 1994; Litchfield, 1993, 1999, 2004; Moch, 1990; these conditions can be part of the process of Neill, 2002a, 2002b; Newman, 1995; Newman & expanding consciousness (Newman, 1994a, 1997a, Moch, 1991; Noveletsky-Rosenthal, 1996; Pharris, 1997b). Pattern recognition is a profound act of nurse Newman (1999) points out that nurse-client re- caring in that it focuses on knowing the patient, lationships often begin during periods of disrup- family, and/or community at a very deep level tion, uncertainty, and unpredictability in patients’ (Newman, 2002b). When patients are in a state of chaos because the context of a caring nurse partnership, which is of disease, trauma, loss, etc. The pattern will be revealed at a higher level of Endo (1998) in her work in Japan with women organization. Newman (1999) states: To explain the concept of a choice point more clearly, Newman draws on Arthur Young’s (1976) The “brokenness”of the situation. Young in partnership with clients and dance their dance, suggests that there are seven stages of binding and even though it appears arrhythmic, until order begins unbinding, which begin with total freedom and un- to emerge out of chaos. We know, and we can help restricted choice, followed by a series of losses of clients know, that there is a basic, underlying pattern freedom. After these losses comes a choice point Emergence of new order at higher level of organization Period of disorganization, unpredictability, uncertainty (response to Normal disease, trauma, loss, etc. Newman’s Theory of Health as Expanding Consciousness and Its Applications 223 and a reversal of the losses of freedom, ending with Potential Freedom Real Freedom total freedom and unrestricted choice. These stages can be conceptualized as seven equidistant points on a V shape (see Figure 15–2). Beginning at the uppermost point on the left is the first stage, poten- Binding Unbinding tial freedom. In this stage, the individual is sacrificed for the sake of the col- lective, with no need for initiative because every- thing is being regulated for the individual. The Centering De-centering third stage, centering, involves the development of an individual identity, self-consciousness, and self- determination. Pattern is higher than form; the The process of expanding consciousness is pattern can manifest itself in different forms. In this characterized by the evolving pattern of the person- stage the person experiences the power of unlimited environment interaction (Newman, 1994a). Con- growth and has learned how to build order against the sciousness is much more than just cognitive trend of disorder. Margaret Newman (1994a) defines con- Newman (1994b) goes on to state that few expe- sciousness as rience the sixth stage, unbinding, or the seventh the information of the system: The capacity of the stage, real freedom, unless they have had these system to interact with the environment. In the experiences of transcendence characterized by the human system the informational capacity includes fifth stage. It is in the moving through the choice not only all the things we normally associate with point and the stages of decentering and unbinding consciousness, such as thinking and feeling, but also that a person moves on to higher levels of con- all the information embedded in the nervous system, sciousness (Newman, 1999). The information of these and other systems reveals the corollary between her theory of Health as complexity of the human system and how the infor- Expanding Consciousness and Young’s theory of mation of the system interacts with the information the Evolution of Consciousness in that we “come of the environmental system. Newman sees fers the image of a smooth lake into which two death as a transformation point, with a person’s stones are thrown. As the stones hit the water, con- consciousness continuing to develop beyond the centric waves circle out until the two patterns reach physical life, becoming a part of a universal con- one another and interpenetrate. Nurses are changed been an expansion of consciousness when there is a by their interactions with their patients, just as pa- richer, more meaningful quality to their relation- tients are changed by their interactions with nurses. Relationships that are more open, loving, This mutual transformation extends to the sur- caring, connected, and peaceful are a manifestation rounding environment and relationships of the of expanding consciousness. The nurse and client may also see movement Newman states: “We have come to see nursing as a through Young’s spectrum of evolving conscious- process of relationship that co-evolves as a func- ness, where people transcend their own egos, dedi- tion of the interpenetration of the evolving fields of cate their energy to something greater than the the nurse, client, and the environment in a self- individual self, and learn to build order against organizing, unpredictable way. It is important the pattern from the outside, but by entering into the that the nurse be able to practice from the center of evolving pattern as it unfolds. It involves being with rather demands that nurses develop tolerance for uncer- than doing for. It is caring in its state of disequilibrium that the potential for deepest, most respectful sense. She states, “The rhythmic relating of process of attending to that which is meaningful. The Somali nurse will have to ask Margaret Newman’s Theory of Health as Expand- more clarifying questions and seek to understand ing Consciousness is being used throughout the that which has not been her experience. No matter world, but it has been more quickly embraced and what the background of the nurse and patient, the understood by nurses from indigenous and Eastern clarifying process, if done in an open, caring, and cultures, who are less bound by linear, three- nonjudging manner, provides great insight for both dimensional thought and physical concepts of participants in the pattern-recognition process as health and who are more immersed in the meta- the nurse and the patient realize their interconnect- physical, mystical aspect of human existence. When the nurse-patient interaction is fo- Increasingly, however, the theory is being enthusi- cused on attending to meaning, it transcends astically embraced by nurses in industrialized na- barriers of culture, gender, age, class, race, educa- tions who are finding it increasingly difficult to tion, and ethnicity. The pilot study informed the methodology unless one has fully comprehended sorrow, and used by Newman and Moch (1991) in their re- vice versa. Although they seem to be opposites, search with people with cardiovascular disease. If you want to see a dark view 20 women diagnosed with breast cancer, cen- pattern more clearly, you would put it against a tering the nurse-patient dialogue on the pattern of light background. Moch asked the women in her study to methodology permits a nurse to be present to a describe what was meaningful to them and found client whose life circumstances are very different that in talking about meaningful people and events, from those of the nurse. For example, the pattern- the sequential patterns of interaction between peo- recognition interaction for a homeless 16-year-old ple and their environment become apparent.

Ask client and significant others to demonstrate knowledge gained by verbalizing information regarding positive self- care practices super p-force oral jelly 160mg generic erectile dysfunction drugs recreational use. Verbalization of knowledge gained is a mea- surable method of evaluating the teaching experience order 160mg super p-force oral jelly with visa erectile dysfunction doctors in charleston sc. Provide positive feedback for participation cheap super p-force oral jelly 160mg without prescription erectile dysfunction journals, as well as for accurate demonstration of knowledge gained. Positive feed- back enhances self-esteem and encourages repetition of desirable behaviors. Client is able to verbalize available community resources for obtaining knowledge about and help with deficits related to health care. Incest is the occurrence of sexual contacts or interaction between, or sexual exploitation of, close relatives, or between participants who are related to each other by a kinship bond that is regarded as a pro- hibition to sexual relations (e. Neglect of a Child Physical neglect of a child includes refusal of or delay in seeking health care, abandonment, expulsion from the home or refusal to allow a runaway to return home, and inadequate supervision. Emotional neglect refers to a chronic failure by the parent or care- taker to provide the child with the hope, love, and support nec- essary for the development of a sound, healthy personality. Physical Abuse of an Adult Physical abuse of an adult may be defined as behavior used with the intent to cause harm and to establish power and con- trol over another person. It may include slaps, punches, biting, hair-pulling, choking, kicking, stabbing or shooting, or forcible restraint. Sexual Abuse of an Adult Sexual abuse of an adult may be defined as the expression of power and dominance by means of sexual violence, most com- monly by men over women, although men may also be victims of sexual assault. Sexual assault is identified by the use of force and executed against the person’s will. Various components of the neurological system in both humans and animals have been implicated in both the facilitation and inhibition of aggressive impulses. Areas of the brain that may be in- volved include the temporal lobe, the limbic system, and the amygdaloid nucleus (Tardiff, 2003). Studies show that various neurotransmitters—in particular norepinephrine, dopa- mine, and serotonin—may play a role in the facilitation and inhibition of aggressive impulses (Hollander, Berlin, & Stein, 2008). Some studies have implicated heredity as a component in the predisposition to aggressive behav- ior. The psychodynamic theorists imply that unmet needs for satisfaction and security re- sult in an underdeveloped ego and a weak superego. It is thought that when frustration occurs, aggression and vio- lence supply this individual with a dose of power and pres- tige that boosts the self-image and validates a significance to his or her life that is lacking. The immature ego cannot prevent dominant id behaviors from occurring, and the weak superego is unable to produce feelings of guilt. This theory postulates that aggressive and violent behaviors are learned from prestigious and influential role models. Individuals who were abused as children or whose parents disciplined with physical pun- ishment are more likely to behave in a violent manner as adults (Tardiff, 2003). Social scientists believe that aggres- sive behavior is primarily a product of one’s culture and social structure. Societal influences may contribute to violence when individuals believe that their needs and desires cannot be met through conventional means, and they resort to delinquent behaviors in an effort to obtain desired ends. They may present with different colors of bluish-purple to yellowish-green (indicating various stages of healing). Rashes or itching in the genital area; scratching the area a great deal or fidgeting when seated. Common Nursing Diagnoses and Interventions (Interventions are applicable to various health-care settings, such as inpatient and partial hospitalization, community outpatient clinic, home health, and private practice. Long-term Goal The client will begin a healthy grief resolution, initiating the process of physical and psychological healing (time to be indi- vidually determined). The woman who has been sexually assaulted fears for her life and must be reassured of her safety. She may also be overwhelmed with self-doubt and self-blame, and these statements instill trust and validate self-worth. Ensure that data collection is conducted in a car- ing, nonjudgmental manner to decrease fear and anxiety and increase trust. Ensure that the client has adequate privacy for all immediate post-crisis interventions. Try to have as few people as pos- sible providing the immediate care or collecting immediate Problems Related to Abuse or Neglect ● 315 evidence. Additional people in the environment increase this feeling of vulnerability and may escalate anxiety. Nonjudgmental listening provides an avenue for catharsis that the client needs to begin healing. A detailed account may be required for legal follow-up, and a caring nurse, as client advocate, may help to lessen the trauma of evidence collection. Because of severe anxiety and fear, client may need assistance from oth- ers during this immediate postcrisis period. Long-term Goal Client will exhibit control over life situation by making deci- sion about what to do regarding living with cycle of abuse (time dimension to be individually determined). In collaboration with physician, ensure that all physical wounds, fractures, and burns receive immediate attention. If the cli- ent is accompanied by the person who did the battering, she or he is not likely to be truthful about the injuries. Ask questions about whether this has happened before, whether the abuser takes drugs, whether the woman has a safe place to go, and whether she is interested in pressing charges. Some women will attempt to keep secret how their injuries occurred in an effort to protect the partner or because they are fearful that the partner will kill them if they tell. Making her own decision will give the client a sense of control over her life situation.

The separated proteins are transferred to nitrocellulose buy super p-force oral jelly 160mg amex erectile dysfunction pills otc, where they are identified with the help of specific antibodies (Fig cheap super p-force oral jelly 160mg fast delivery valsartan causes erectile dysfunction. Polyclonal sera is normally used for this purpose as monoclonal antibodies only rarely bind to denaturated and separated proteins super p-force oral jelly 160 mg fast delivery erectile dysfunction doctor in houston. Usage subject to terms and conditions of license 124 2 Basic Principles of Immunology Immunoelectrophoresis According to Grabar and Williams Undiluted serum 2 + _ Antihuman serum Albumin 1 : 6 α- β- γ-globulins Undiluted IgM IgA IgG Anti-IgG, anti-IgA, anti-IgM IgG 1 : 6 Fig. An antigen is fixed on the surface of erythro- cytes and the antigen-loaded erythrocytes are then agglutinated using spe- cific antibodies. The abilityof a sample containing anti- gen to inhibit hemagglutination between antigen-loaded erythrocytes and antiserum is measured. This test is frequently used to quantify antibodies againsthemagglutinatingviruses(mainlyinfluenzaandparainfluenzaviruses). TheindirectCoombstestis suitable for detection of antibodies that have already bound to the Rh+ erythrocytes of newborns (second pregnancy or sensitized mother), or which have been in- Kayser, Medical Microbiology © 2005 Thieme All rights reserved. Usage subject to terms and conditions of license Immunological Test Methods 125 Western Blotting 2 Fig. Non-specific binding of the antibodies to the filter is then prevented with serum albumin or irrelevant proteins that do not cross-react with any of the antibodies used. Once im- mune complexes have formed, the unbound antibodies are thoroughly washed away and the remaining bound antibodies are labeled using anti-immunoglobulin antibodies. The unused complement is then detected by ad- dition of a known amount of antibody-loaded erythrocytes. Immunofluorescence can be used for in-vivo detection of antibodies, complement, viruses, fungi, bacteria, or other im- Kayser, Medical Microbiology © 2005 Thieme All rights reserved. Usage subject to terms and conditions of license 126 2 Basic Principles of Immunology Hemagglutination Erythrocyte Antigen antigen artificially fixed on erythrocyte 2 Reciprocal serum dilution Control 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 pos. Test serum a positive1 32 Test serum b negative Test serum c positive 1/8 with prozone 1/2 Fig. The test sera are first pipetted into the wells at the indicated dilutions, then the erythrocyte suspension is added. Alternatively, other antigens can be fixed to the erythrocyte surface and the agglutination monitored (above right). The so-called “prozone” phenomenon results from non-specific blocking mechanisms present in sera which has not been sufficiently diluted. For this purpose tissue sections, or cell preparations, are treated with specific antibodies (anti-sera) which have been labeled with a fluorochrome (Fig. Usage subject to terms and conditions of license Immunological Test Methods 127 Antigen Detection Methods 2 Fig. The term indirect immunofluorescence is used when it is not the primary antibody being detected, but a secondary antibody which is directed against the unlabeled primary antibodyand has also been labeled with a fluorochrome or enzyme (b). However, an even higher level of amplification can be achieved using preformed complexes of secondary antibody and enzyme (c). For the peroxidase method the detector enzyme is bounddirectly tothe secondary antibody (peroxidase catalyzes a color reaction). In the biotin-avidin method the detector enzymes are coupled to either biotin or avidin. The antigen–antibody com- plexes that form are then detected using a labeled or “second” antibody, di- rected against the first antibody (Fig. Instead of fluorochromes, enzy- me-labeled antibodies are now frequently used for tissue sections. The en- zyme catalyzes the formation of a color signal following addition of a pre- viously colorless detector substance. This color precipitate allows the direct observation of signals using a light microscopic, and exhibits little bleaching. Indirect immunofluorescence can be used for the qualitative and quanti- tative analysis of antibodies directed against particular microbial antigens, or self-tissue antigens, within a patients serum. In the quantitative test, the anti- gen is fixed in a well or to a tissue section on a slide. The patient sample is repeatedly diluted by a factor of two and added to the antigen or section then rendered visible with a labeled anti–antibody. There are two main methods of amplifying the immunohistological color signal: Kayser, Medical Microbiology © 2005 Thieme All rights reserved. Usage subject to terms and conditions of license 128 2 Basic Principles of Immunology & The direct ’primary’ antibody, or the detected ’secondary’ antibody, is la- beled with peroxidase. Following the antigen-antibody reaction, large pre- formed peroxidase-antiperoxidase complexes are added tothe tissue section; these complexes can attach to the peroxidase-labeled antibodies, which are alreadyspecificallybound,thusamplifyingthesignalconsiderably(Fig. Various colorants or en- zymes coupled to avidin thus facilitate the color reactions. Such reactions can be amplified on the tissue section by adding preformed biotin-avidin-perox- idase complexes that bind to those biotin-coupled antibodies which have al- ready been bound. All absorbency tests in- volve the fixation of antigens or antibodies to a plastic surface. All of these assays can be performed in a direct form (different sandwich combinations of antigen, antibody and anti-antibody, Fig. Various methods are then used to detect any inter- action between the antigen and antibody. In the direct test (a) an immobilized, unknown, antigen can be detected using a fluorescent-labeled antibody. If the im- mobilized antigen is known, this test method can also be used to detect an anti- body bound to the antigen. Detection of antibody-antigen binding is then performed using a second, labeled antibody which interacts with the antigen at a different site.

Oxidative metabo- lism (seen invivo and in microsomal enzymes) cheap 160 mg super p-force oral jelly with visa erectile dysfunction hypertension drugs, and Prediction of human holumes of distribution especially cytochrome P450s buy cheap super p-force oral jelly 160mg line erectile dysfunction zinc, vary tremendously between human individuals (Meyer buy discount super p-force oral jelly 160mg erectile dysfunction doctor in miami, 1994; Shimada The free (not plasma protein bound) volume of et al. Had we used a single donor micro- distribution of experimental drugs is generally con- somal sample, rather than pooled liver microsomes sidered to be constant for all species. Thus, the (a pool consisting of at least eight individual volume of distribution in humans can easily be donors), to scale in vitro data to in vivo hepatic predicted through a simple proportionality clearance, we might have made greatly misleading between in vitro plasma protein binding data in predictions (note that oxidative, initial drug meta- humans and in a preclinical species, and in vivo bolism is sometimes called ‘phase I metabolism’ in volume of distribution in that same preclinical the literature, causing ambiguity with the stage of species: drug development or type of clinical trial). When size of the dose (D)is observed volumes of distribution for these two known, and when drug concentration (C) may be species in vivo. For Fraction of Predicted example, a lipophilic drug may penetrate lipophilic compound X In vivo volume of organs such as brain, and, obviously, brain sam- unbound in volume of distribution the plasma distribution in humans pling simply for pharmacokinetic purposes is ( fu) (l kg) (l kg) usually possible only in animals. Oral bioavailability may of these drugs by any other route of administration is be described as the fraction of the total oral dose for usually pointless, unless there is some highly which systemic exposure is achieved. It is a mea- specialized issue, for example absorption after surement of the extent of exposure and contrasts intrathecal administration or potential for drug with the rates of absorption or elimination abuse. Fluctuation of plasma drug concentration is an Clinically, F is found by comparing the systemic important aspect of the bioavailability of slow- exposures that result after intravenous and release formulations, which almost always have (usually) oral doses of the same drug. Assuming that the assay can handle the the tolerability aspects of a proposed normal volun- inevitably lower plasma concentrations, a useful teer study). It is, in fact, preferable to achieve measure of fluctuation, after the initial absorption concentrations in the same range from the two phase of the curve and during the next four half- doses. These studies are usually conducted under standard conditions and where Fa represents the fraction of drug absorbed using crossover protocols, although, occasionally, through the intestinal lining, Cl is the hepatic a double-label study may be used to measure F clearance (predicted from in vitro studies, see ear- instantaneously. Comparison of generic with inno- lier section) and Q is the hepatic blood flow vator’s formulations, and slow-release with rapidly in humans (see, for example Rane et al. Similarly, subcutaneous and used to predict the fraction absorbed through the intravenous injections can be compared. Recently, Caco-2 cell permeabil- rare exceptions, the intravenous administration of a ity studies have replaced the use of octanol/buffer dose is assumed to be 100% bioavailable. It was observed that the toxic dose of a drug is similar À6 À1 among species when the dose is compared on the ifw Papp < 10 cms ; then Fa ¼ 0À20% À6 À1 basis of body surface area (Freireich et al. Allometric correction of dose multiples resulted in more accurate oral bioavailability pre- in toxicology (compared with proposed human dictions. Using the predicted hepatic clearance for doses) is thus important, especially when small compound X in humans (see above), estimating Fa rodents provide the principal toxicology coverage. This compares well with the known oral bioavailability of this compound in This allometric relationship between body surface rats and dogs (83 and 72%, respectively). The conversion factor (km) is to humans in vivo simply the body weight divided by the body sur- face area. Thus, using the km factors, the dose in Elementary aspects À1 Species 1 (in mg kg ) is equivalent to (kmspecies2/ kmspecies1) times the dose in Species 2 (in mg Allometric scaling is an empirical method for À1 À1 kg ). For example, a 50 mg kg dose of drug predicting physiological, anatomical and pharma- À1 in mouse would be equivalent to a 4. Allometric scaling factor can be used to calculate equivalent doses is based on similarities among species in their between any species. An equivalent dose in milli- physiology, anatomy and biochemistry, coupled gram per kilogram in rat would be twice that for with the observation that smaller animals perform mouse. The allometric equa- tion is Y ¼ aWb, and a log transformation of this Allometric approaches to drug discovery formula yields the straight line: Using limited data, allometric scaling may be use- log Y ¼ b log W þ log a; ful in drug discovery. We assume that, for the formula Y ¼ aWb, the value of the power function where Y is the pharmacokinetic or physiological ‘b’ (or slope of the line from a log vs. By doing this, we can use data weight and b is the allometric exponent (slope of from a single species (rat) to successfully predict the line). We also know that compound X is $80% orally bioavailable in rats and dogs (see above) Figure 8. This method could be expected to save excitotoxicity, in which the neurotoxin malonate time and money in the drug discovery process by was injected into the striatum of rats. A subcuta- À1 enabling us to do the following: neousinjectionofcompoundXat9 mgkg caused an 80% reduction in the lesion activity produced by 1. The selection of the wrong dose in In a study using spontaneously hypertensive À1 an animal model, especially in a model in a rats, a dose of 12 mg kg of compound X was larger species such as cat, could lead to invalid also neuroprotective [these rats were subjected to results, either through toxicity (if the dose is too 2 h of focal ischemia by occlusion of the right high) or inactivity (if the dose is too low). Provide confidence that the pharmacological systemic absorption, the expected plasma Cmax at À1 model will predict efficacy in humans. In this model, there drug is effective in therapeutic models using was a significant reduction (greater than 30%) in different species and these animals receive cortical infarct volume, compared with saline con- equivalent exposures (as measured by the max- trols, when the drug was given at the time of imum plasma concentration, Cmax, or area under occlusion and at 0, 0. As assumption that in the formula Y ¼ aWb the with the cat, we made our predictions prospec- value of the power function b was compound inde- tively by assuming, that for the formula pendent and that the function a was compound Y ¼ aWb, the value of the power function b (or dependent (Ings observed that the power function slope of the line from a log vs. The inter- cept function a was then determined for each para- Thus, meter by substituting the pharmacokinetic data À1 À1 from rats, that is clearance ¼ 0. We estimated the pharmacokinetic parameters for humans by By substituting back into the formula and using a substituting the calculated intercept function cat weight of 4 kg, we found: back into the formula and solving for Y for a 70- kg human. The prediction of the plasma half-life in À1 humans was determined by three separate meth- V1cat ¼ 4:81 or 1:211 kg : ods. For our predictions, we also assumed that the Our formula for calculating the dose to be admi- protein binding was the same in rats and in humans nistered was: and that the metabolism of compound X was simi- lar in both the species. Clearly, approaches such as Dosecat ¼ DoseratðV1cat=V1ratÞ this could be a routine part of drug discovery. The values estimated by allometric scaling were The formula for predicting the plasma half-life compared with those observed in the single-dose was: human volunteer study (Table 8. We predicted that for compound X in humans, the plasma yÀx T1=2cat ¼ T1=2ratðWcat=WratÞ in which y is as defined earlier and x is a clearance Table 8.